Egoism related to ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Egoism related to ethics - Essay Example Nevertheless, egoism in ethics becomes mismatched statement; as the core idea of ethical ideology is to act in a moral way (right or wrong) to benefit community or the larger world. Yet, egoism perspective teaches only to act in one’s own self interest. Thus, completeness in truth is not a provable moral principle in egoism. Simultaneously, rational egoism in ethics is described as a significant choice or interest of a person with rational or logical action plan to attain personal interest. However, in general egoism is seen with disdain, but that is not the case always. It benefits a person and community as well. For instance, if a person belief in re-use of things then he is not only saving money at his end, but also decreasing pollution factor in various manners. Similarly, cultural relativism is a perspective of a specific group to act as morally right or wrong. Hence, this perceptive neither forms a theory or is ethically justified. ‘Basant’ is a sub-continental festival celebrated by people of India and Pakistan. Its main idea perceived by general public is to celebrate spring via yellow dress codes, kite flying and eating. However, this festival is not appreciated by Muslims due to religious grounds as it is celebrated in the honour of Hindu Goddess Saraswati. There is no harm if one politely declines to eat pork, raw ribs or alcohol due to personal belief or religious grounds. As it is an acceptable action according to egoism and ethics. Yet, if a person belief and adapts a practice, which exploits the rights of larger community then egoism is a false

Divorce Among Koreans in the USA Research Paper

Divorce Among Koreans in the USA - Research Paper Example This may be true not only among Americans in the United States of America in recent developments but generally among all the peoples of the world. For instance, it is said that it is easier to divorce than to flag down a taxi in Korea. (Hayes, Sean. Reform of the Korean Divorce Law. OhmyNews INTERNATIONAL. [internet]) Korean divorce rate is one of the highest in the globe and possibly the highest in Asia. There are many possible reasons why the newest generation of Koreans has a high rate in divorce. It may be because of the new liberal and more dynamic and independent role of women in the new societal set-up or because of the rising trend for individualistic attitudes rather than for family advancement and value formation. It may also be due to society having modernized so quickly or due to personal demands for selfish gratification at the click of a finger. While a divorce or a separation helps any one of the spouses or the two of them in so many instances, this can only be fine and in order if there are no children affected as when the couple did not bear any. In another way of saying, children who are the products of a broken marriage almost always become menace to society as they resort to drugs, alcohol, unwanted pregnancies in the case of daughters, and other undesirable practices or behavior as acts of rebellion against the parents who have shattered what could have been a whole and happy family. In this treatise, the covered population pertains to first and second generations of Koreans in the United States of America. The opinions and findings of other researchers - a literature review In one study, statistics and findings showed that only a total of 6.1 % of Koreans in the United States are either separated or divorced, lower than that for other nationals. (Yu, Eui-Young, Peter Choe and Sang Il Han. Korean Population in the United States, 2000. Demographic Characteristics and Socio-Economic Status. page 9. [internet]). Curiously again, of one hundred thirty three Korean women interviewed in a 2003 study who live in the United States, only seven were divorced or separated. (Lee, Eunju. DOMESTIC CONFLICT AND COPING STRATEGIES AMONG KOREAN IMMIGRANT WOMEN IN THE UNITED STATES. [internet]) The above observations simply indicate that divorce among Koreans in the United States has not reached any level of concern. As a matter of course, there is really not much justification to undertake a research on incidents of divorce among Koreans who reside in or have migrated to the United States. Instead, there is great consolation in discovering that Korean families in their foreign host country have endeavored as much as possible to see to it that the home environment is kept intact. This is confirmed by the fact that the bond of marriage has even strengthened among Korean Americans. As a matter of fact Korean Americans have changed their orientation

Study On What Is Absenteeism Management Essay

Study On What Is Absenteeism Management Essay To many in the world of work, absenteeism is one of those stubborn problems for which à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..there is no clear culprit and no easy cure (Rhodes Steers, 1990). Furthermore, as a general phenomenon it does not discriminate against individuals on the basis of sex, race and religion. Bydawell (2000) postulates that employers have the right to expect good attendance from their employees as employment is a contract between two consenting parties. The author additionally states that absentee issues will undeniably arise within the employment relationship, and should be resolved in a way which is fair and unbiased to both the employer and the employee. Absenteeism can be very costly to organisations and gargantuan reserves can be realised through successful management of non-attendance at work. in addition to the cost implications, absenteeism is influenced by dozens of interconnected factors which make it even more difficult to quantify, qualify, or rectify (Tylczak , 1990). One of these factors which have been cited by different researchers is an employees level of job satisfaction in the workplace. In combination with this, George and Jones (2002) maintain that many scholars have studied the relationship between absenteeism and job satisfaction in an attempt to discover ways to reduce absenteeism. Early job satisfaction research has emphasised the fundamental assumption that job disappointment represents the main reason of absenteeism (Steers, Porter Bigley, 1996). McShanes (1984) review as quoted by Steers et al. (1996) supported the notion that employees who are disappointed with various aspects of their jobs are more likely to be absent. Studies by McShane (1984) found job satisfaction to be more highly related to frequency of absences than to number of days lost (St eers et al., 1996, p. 409). Rhodes and Steers (1990) propose that employee attendance is based on an employees motivation to attend as well as their capability to attend. According to George and Jones (2002), job satisfaction is one of the factors affecting an employees motivation to attend. It becomes important to calculate the strength of the relationship between absenteeism and job satisfaction as positive attitudes can at times serve to pull the individual towards the organisation and the reverse can be expected when attitudes are more negative (George Jones, 2002, p. 94). An employees ability to attend is influenced on the other hand by factors such as family responsibilities, transportation problems, accidents and etc. Once all these variables are recognized, managers may begin to understand why employees sometimes choose not to come to work when they are fully capable of attending. By the same token, it is equally important for managers to understand those circumstances in which people, for whatever reason (illness or otherwise), are genuinely unable to come to work (Rhodes Steers, 1990). Furthermore, the question most people would ask is what is an acceptable absenteeism rate? In terms of the Basic Conditions of Employment Act 75 (1997), an employee is entitled to 30 working days sick leave in a three-year period. Bydawell (2000) states that if all the employees within a company jointly take their full entitlement, the companys absenteeism rate will run at approximately 4 %, which is generally believed to be tolerable. Some companies permit employees to exceed their 30 days, but in these instances it would be regarded as unpaid leave. typically organisations do not take these additional days into account when calculating their absenteeism rate and it results in an mistaken estimation of the situation. Bydawell (2000) purports that in reality, many companies run at absenteeism rates as high as 12 % without even realising it. Absenteeism seems to be a behaviour that organisations can never get rid of, but they can rather control and manage it. George and Jones (2002) note that organisations should not have absence policies that are so restrictive that they literally force workers to come to work even if they are ill. Organisations may want to recognise that a certain level of absence is indeed functional. Before looking at the causes, outcomes and issues related to absenteeism i need to look at the definition of the following terms: Absenteeism Job satisfaction Absenteeism In terms of the discussion, the three terms absence, absenteeism and sickness absence will be used as synonymous in sense, implying that workers who were scheduled for work and expected to attend, did not turn up. Cascio (2003) defines absenteeism as any failure of an employee to report for or to remain at work as scheduled, regardless of the motive. Milkovich and Boudreau (1994) describe absenteeism from an organisations point of view as the frequency and/or duration of work time lost when employees do not come to work. Absenteeism therefore implies an unplanned, disruptive incident; but more distinctively, it can be seen as non-attendance when an employee is listed for work (Van der Merwe Miller, 1988). Job satisfaction Spector (1997) stated that job satisfaction merely as the extent to which people like their jobs and the different aspects of their jobs. Job satisfaction is also defined as a reaction towards different facets of ones job that is a person can be relatively satisfied with one aspect of his or her job and dissatisfied with other aspects (French, 1998; George Jones, 2002; Kreitner Kinicki, 2001). Robbins (1998) defines job satisfaction as a general approach towards ones job; the difference between the quantity workers receive and the amount they consider they should receive. http://www.jstor.org/pss/255965 (accessed at 13/04/2010) http://etd.uwc.ac.za/usrfiles/modules/etd/docs/etd_init_6525_1175242441.pdf (accessed at 13/04/2010) www.CottrillsReward.com/motivation (accessed at 13/04/2010) Types of Absenteeism Absenteeism can be classified into three broad categories (Van der Merwe and Miller, 1998) as under; Sickness absence, Authorised absence or absence with permission and Unexcused absence or absence without leave. Sickness Absence Sickness absence is a category where employees claim health problem as their reason for absence. Requirements regarding medical or doctors certificates vary and are determined by company policy or the Basic Conditions of Employment Act (BCEA). The Basic Conditions of Employment Act 75 (1997) is that a certificate needs to be produced after two days of sickness absence. Most managers have found that certification is not a guarantee of genuine absence as it has become easy for people to gain access to medical certificates. Authorised Absence / Absence with Permission Absence with permission is where workforce gives an justification for their absence whether that be for holidays, study leave, special leave etc. Usually such a request is included in the absence policy (Van der Merwe Miller, 1988). Unexcused Absence All absences that do not fall in above mentioned categories and where no valid reason is given or not accepted are known as unexcused absences (Van Der Merwe Miller, 1988). This type of absence, when it reaches difficult extent, will have to be pointed out to employees in question in command to fetch their attendance in line with satisfactory standards. Employees who come to work later in the day or who disappear earlier are in general not recorded on the leave records of employers and the manager is normally aware of such absences (Wolmarans, 1994). A MODEL OF ABSENTEEISM Aamodt (1996) maintains that before an organisation spends time and money trying to stop absenteeism, it must first be aware of the theories around why people dont turn up on work. different models have been developed to describe absence deeds, but the Integrated Model of Attendance developed by Rhodes and Steers (1990) provides a heuristic structure on the different factors influencing employee attendance (FIGURE1.). FIGURE1 Source : Absenteeism Model, Source: Rhodes Steers (1990, p. 46) FIGURE1 suggests that an employees attendance (Box 8) is primarily determined by two important variables: An employees motivation to attend (Box 6) An employees ability to attend (Box 7) The authors further suggest that the employees motivation to attend is influenced by two factors: Satisfaction with the job situation (Box 4) Pressures to attend (Box 5). In the context of this model, the job situation refers to the general working environment and not only the nature of the tasks. Rhodes and Steers (1990) list seven factors related to the job situation that could guide to increased job satisfaction namely (Box 1): job scope job level, role stress size of the work group style of the leader, co-worker relations and the opportunity for advancement. A few of these factors are explained briefly. If, for example, the particular management style is dictatorial and disliked by staff, it could cause friction and poor attendance might be the consequence (Rhodes Steers, 1990). In terms of co-worker relations, Johns (1996) argues that group norm have a strong impact on attendance levels. Du Plessis et al. (2003) found that a culture of absenteeism amongst one group of employees might influence work values and devotion of other employees. New employees seem to adopt the existing culture, values, norms and standards of the organisation which they join, i.e. they might be influenced by the present absenteeism norms in the organisation (Rosseau, 1985 as quoted by Du Plessis et al., 2003). Lau, Au and Ho (2003) found that industries with a high group absence rate also had higher levels of individual absences. Organisations are therefore faced with the challenge of managing absence behaviours within groups as it influences the behaviour of e mployees entering the organisation. Furthermore, the model suggested that employees values and expectations also have an influence on employee attendance (Box 2). Attitudes, values and goals differ considerably from person to person, depending on what is important for the individual at a particular point in time. Rhodes and Steers (1990) postulate that work related attitudes (for example, job involvement) can play a significant role in determining how employees view the psychological contract between employees and management, as well as how committed they are to coming to work. Further variables cited by these authors include personal work ethics and the centrality of work which refers to how important work is in a persons life goals. The decision by an employee to absent him/herself is thus related to the importance attached to work. Another factor influencing attendance is the personal characteristics and backgrounds of employees (Box 3). Tylczak (1990) terms this category employee specifics and includes things like gender roles, desire to spend time with friends and hobbies. As an example, older, more established employees might be more stable and might report fewer sick leave incidents than younger employees who do not mind risking their jobs due to absence. Closely related to this is the question of whether lifestyle choices influence absenteeism. According to Ericson (2001), lifestyle choices such as smoking, drinking and other substances could influence absenteeism. Common in organisations is the trend of employees taking sick leave either on a Friday or on a Monday due to alcohol and other substance abuse. Ericson (2001) maintains that the area of lifestyle choice is probably the hardest part of absenteeism management to address, as it blurs the lines between personal habits and the workplace. An organisation can offer counselling services to help resolve these personal problems in an attempt to reduce absenteeism levels. These plans are in general referred to as employee support programmes (EAPs) and is defined as a confidential counselling and referral service provided by organisations as an employee advantage (Strazewski, 2005). Finally, the model suggests that there are certain pressures to attend (Box 5) which have an influence on an employees motivation to attend and these include the economic/market conditions (like unemployment), incentive and reward systems, personal work ethic and organisational commitment. Hence, if unemployment levels are high, people might be less willing to take sick leave for fear of losing their jobs (Rhodes Steers, 1990). There are also factors that constrain an employees ability or capacity to attend (Box 7) Illness Family related and transport problems Individual personality traits Demographic variables also impact on absenteeism and includes like; Age Tenure (length of an employment) Marital status Number of dependents Gender Job level etc. http://etd.uwc.ac.za/usrfiles/modules/etd/docs/etd_init_6525_1175242441.pdf (accessed at 14/04/2010) Common Reasons behind Absenteeism Some of the common reasons behind absenteeism are as under; Serious accidents and illness Low morale Workload Employee discontent with the work environment Benefits which continue income during periods of illness or accident The existence of income protection plans (collective agreement ) Poor working conditions Boredom on the job Inadequate leadership and poor supervision Personal problems (financial, marital, substance abuse, child care etc.) Poor physical fitness The existence of income protection plans (collective agreement ) Transportation problems Stress http://superfriends13.tripod.com/causes_absent.htm (accessed at 14/04/2010) Absenteeism measurement Rhodes and Steers (1990) point out that measuring absenteeism can serve four purposes to organisations, namely, to administer payroll and benefit programmes, for production scheduling, to identify absenteeism problems and to measure and control personnel costs. Administering payroll and benefits programs According to Rhodes and Steers (1990), information about who is present and who is absent from work can assist organisations in determining whether absence is compensable under a benefit program or other contractual arrangements. Production scheduling Rhodes and Steers (1990) maintain that it is important to have absence data available as it can assist managers in planning for which human resources will be needed to meet production requirements. In this way, organisations will avoid the cost of overstaffing and also be protected from having too few employees at work. Identifying absenteeism problems To assess whether there is an absenteeism problem, it is important to measure absenteeism and have this data available. This could assist in determining if some departments have higher absence rates than others, how an organisation compares with others in the industry, whether there is a certain trend and so forth (Robinson, 2002). Measuring and controlling personnel costs Excessive absence can be costly to organisations. Anderson (2004, p. 26) notes that unexpected absence costs corporate America billions of dollars annually in direct costs. By measuring absence, the organisation could estimate the costs, thereby reducing its effect on the organisation. Moreover it can facilitate the determination of which proportion of absenteeism managers are able to control, in order to devise appropriate strategies to reduce absence in the workplace (Rhodes Steers, 1990). According to (Van der Merwe Miller, 1988) the two most widely used measures of absence are: The Gross Absence Rate (GAR), which measures the extent of absence Absence Frequency Rate (AFR), which measures the incidence of absence taking). The Gross Absence Rate (GAR) the formula for GAR is as follows: GAR = ÃŽ 100 The disadvantage of the GAR is that it gives an overall figure and can be distorted by long sick absences. Two or three employees who are on sick leave for a few weeks, could inflate the organisations GAR and could give an incorrect impression of a severe absence problem. Absence Frequency Rate (AFR) The AFR is used to overcome these disadvantages.The formula for calculating AFR is as follows: AFR = Van der Merwe and Miller (1988) note that when computing the AFR, each absence, irrespective of the length, is counted as one incident. The AFR is expressed as a ratio, and normally it is given per month, i.e. the absence incidents per person per month. These two measures provide a useful summary description of both the extent and frequency of absence in organisations. http://etd.uwc.ac.za/usrfiles/modules/etd/docs/etd_init_6525_1175242441.pdf (accessed at 16/04/2010) Cost related to absenteeism Absenteeism is costly and managers are continuously exploring ways to reduce the cost. Bydawell (2000) and Schumacher (2004) underlined the growing concern that employees who absent themselves and present doctors certificates, are in fact absent for non-health related matters. Some employees even use their sick leave as vacation days when they have shattered their annual leave benefits. This makes it very difficult for managers as some employees have an entitlement state of mind. Haswell (2003) maintains that it is unlikely that absenteeism can be completely eradicated in organisations hence, financial provision should be made for sick benefits. To determine whether absence is really a problem to be addressed, the organisation has to measure the costs of absence to the organisation. A number of studies have attempted to determine the financial implications of absenteeism. Chadwick-Jones (1982) as cited by Butler (1994, p. 26) estimated that one days absence by an employee costs the organisation one and a half times the daily rate of pay of that employee. Most companies probably use their own methods of determining the cost associated with absenteeism. However, according to Butler (1994), there are a few ways to estimate absenteeism costs. One of these is the aggregate approach that estimates the number of additional employees to be hired to offset the effects of absenteeism. The company thus hires casual labour or temporary employees to fill in for the absent employees, especially in positions that cannot be left vacant, for example, an organisations receptionist position. Goodman and Atkin (2000) as cited by Butler (1994, p. 26) indicate that the cost therefore of recruiting, selecting, training and paying these additional employees represents one way in which the costs of absenteeism can be estimated. Another approach estimates the incremental costs per day associated with the absent employee, for example, salary and pension that still have to be paid during the employees absence. According to Butler (1994, p. 26), if an employee is absent and a casual/temporary employee is hired, the task of management is to compare the costs that would have been involved if the absent employee had come to work, plus the additional costs of hiring a replacement employee. It is important then for organisations to have a proper system in place to determine the costs of absenteeism, so that it can be managed effectively. 5. Organizational Behaviour Theories and Absenteeism 5.1 Maslows Hierarchy of Needs f motivation is driven by the existence of unsatisfied needs, then it is worthwhile for a manager to understand which needs are the more important for individual employees. In this regard, Abraham Maslow developed a model in which basic, low-level needs such as physiological requirements and safety must be satisfied before higher-level needs such as self-fulfilment are pursued. In this hierarchical model, when a need is mostly satisfied it no longer motivates and the next higher need takes its place. Maslows hierarchy of needs is shown in the following diagram: Implications for Management Maslows theory holds, there are some important implications for management. There are opportunities to motivate employees through management style, job design, company events, and compensation packages, some examples of which follow: Physiological needs: Provide lunch breaks, rest breaks, and wages that are sufficient to purchase the essentials of life. Safety Needs: Provide a safe working environment, retirement benefits, and job security. Social Needs: Create a sense of community via team-based projects and social events. Esteem Needs: Recognize achievements to make employees feel appreciated and valued. Offer job titles that convey the importance of the position. Self-Actualization: Provide employees a challenge and the opportunity to reach their full career potential. 5.2 Herzbergs Motivation Hygiene Theory (Two Factor Theory) To better understand employee attitudes and motivation, Frederick Herzberg performed studies to determine which factors in an employees work environment caused satisfaction or dissatisfaction. He published his findings in the 1959 book The Motivation to Work. The studies included interviews in which employees where asked what pleased and displeased them about their work. Herzberg found that the factors causing job satisfaction (and presumably motivation) were different from that causing job dissatisfaction. He developed the motivation-hygiene theory to explain these results. He called the satisfiers motivators and the dissatisfiers hygiene factors, using the term hygiene in the sense that they are considered maintenance factors that are necessary to avoid dissatisfaction but that by themselves do not provide satisfaction. Details available at: http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/mcclelland/ (Accessed on April 24, 2010) Factors Affecting Job Attitude Leading to Satisfaction Leading to Dissatisfaction Achievement Recognition Work itself Responsibility Advancement Growth Company policy Supervision Relationship w/Boss Work conditions Salary Relationship Implication for Management Herzberg argued that job enrichment is required for intrinsic motivation, and that it is a continuous management process. According to Herzberg: The job should have sufficient challenge to utilize the full ability of the employee. Employees who demonstrate increasing levels of ability should be given increasing levels of responsibility. If a job cannot be designed to use an employees full abilities, then the firm should consider automating the task or replacing the employee with one who has a lower level of skill. If a person cannot be fully utilized, then there will be a motivation problem. Critics of Herzbergs theory argue that the two-factor result is observed because it is natural for people to take credit for satisfaction and to blame dissatisfaction on external factors. Furthermore, job satisfaction does not necessarily imply a high level of motivation or productivity. 5.3 McClelland Theory of Needs In his acquired-needs theory, David McClelland proposed that an individuals specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped by ones life experiences. Most of these needs can be classed as achievement, affiliation, or power. A persons motivation and effectiveness in certain job functions are influenced by these three needs. McClellands theory sometimes is referred to as the three need theory or as the learned needs theory. 5.3.1 Achievement People with a high need for achievement (nAch) seek to excel and thus tend to avoid both low-risk and high-risk situations. Achievers avoid low-risk situations because the easily attained success is not a genuine achievement. In high-risk projects, achievers see the outcome as one of chance rather than ones own effort. High nAch individuals prefer work that has a moderate probability of success, ideally a 50% chance. Achievers need regular feedback in order to monitor the progress of their achievements. They prefer either to work alone or with other high achievers. 5.3.2 Affiliation Those with a high need for affiliation (nAff) need harmonious relationships with other people and need to feel accepted by other people. They tend to conform to the norms of their work group. High nAff individuals prefer work that provides significant personal interaction. They perform well in customer service and client interaction situations. 5.3.3 Power A persons need for power (nPow) can be one of two types personal and institutional. Those who need personal power want to direct others, and this need often is perceived as undesirable. Persons who need institutional power (also known as social power) want to organize the efforts of others to further the goals of the organization. Managers with a high need for institutional power tend to be more effective than those with a high need for personal power. Implications for Management People with different needs are motivated differently. High need for achievement High achievers should be given challenging projects with reachable goals. They should be provided frequent feedback. While money is not an important motivator, it is an effective form of feedback. High need for affiliation Employees with a high affiliation need perform best in a cooperative environment. High need for power Management should provide power seekers the opportunity to manage others. All organizational behaviour theories stress that if employees are satisfied than they will contribute as much as they can in the success of an organization. Organizations can use various methods in order to keep their worker happy and if staff is happy and like to come on work regularly it mean that there are less chances of absenteeism and it can save the huge cost associated with the absence of employees. So it is the responsibility of organizations to manage and make sure that they have adequate system that can bring their workforce normal to work. Details analysis on these approaches will be later on discussed in this article.

Contrasting Fortinbras and Laertes with Hamlet Essay -- comparison com

     Ã‚   In William Shakespeare's tragedy Hamlet, Laertes, Fortinbras and Hamlet find themselves in similar situations.   While Hamlet waits for the right time to avenge his father's death, Laertes learns of his father's death and immediately wants vengeance, and Fortinbras awaits his chance to recapture land that used to belong to his father.   Laertes and Fortinbras go about accomplishing their desires quite differently than Hamlet.   While Hamlet acts slowly and carefully, Laertes and Fortinbras seek their revenge with haste. Although Laertes and Fortinbras are minor characters, Shakespeare molds them in order to contrast with Hamlet.   Fortinbras and, to a greater extent, Laertes act as foils to Hamlet with respect to their motives for revenge, execution of their plans and behavior while carrying out their plans.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Although each character plots to avenge his father in the play, the motives of Laertes and Fortinbras differ greatly than that of Hamlet.   Fortinbras, who schemes to rebuild his father's kingdom, leads thousands of men into battle, attempting to capture a small and worthless piece of Poland. After his uncle warned him against attacking Denmark.   The added land will do little to benefit Norway's prosperity, but this campaign may cost "two thousand souls and twenty thousand ducats" (4.4.26) .   This shows that pride is a driving factor behind Fortinbras' plan because he is willing to put the lives of his countrymen at risk for a minimal gain.   Laertes, on the other hand, is compelled to seek revenge because he loses his father and eventually his sister.   The root of Laertes' revenge appears to be the love for his family because he proclaims that he will "be revenged / most throughly for [his] father" (4.5... ...side Shakespeare. Ed. G. Blakemore Evans. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1974.    Mack, Maynard. "The World of Hamlet." Yale Review. vol. 41 (1952) p. 502-23. Rpt. in Shakespeare: Modern Essays in Criticism. Rev. ed. Ed. Leonard F. Dean. New York: Oxford University P., 1967.    Rosenberg, Marvin. "Laertes: An Impulsive but Earnest Young Aristocrat." Readings on Hamlet. Ed. Don Nardo. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1999. Rpt. from The Masks of Hamlet. Newark, NJ: Univ. of Delaware P., 1992.    Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 1995. http://www.chemicool.com/Shakespeare/hamlet/full.html    Ward & Trent, et al. The Cambridge History of English and American Literature. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1907-21; New York: Bartleby.com, 2000 http://www.bartleby.com/215/0816.html   

Techniques Used In Estimating The Age Architecture Essay

Forensic anthropologists are experienced in the designation of human remains. One of the first inquiries to be asked upon the find of skeletal remains is are they of a human or animate being? Once the beginning of the castanetss has been established it so has to be determined as to whether the remains are of forensic or archeological birthplace. The customary clip he lapsed since decease should be less than 70 old ages if it is to be classed as a forensic instance. This is due to the fact that if the remains are discovered after 70 old ages it will be harder to convey an person to justness or a dependable informant being found. ( Scheuer 2002 ) The usage of Osteological stuff in a forensic instance is peculiarly utile during the designation procedure of disconnected or disarticulated remains. Age is merely one of the four chief biological properties used in the designation of skeletal remains. ( Zioupos et al 2004 ) . All must be considered independently ab initio before uniting or properties in order of obtaining possible designation. The four chief properties of biological individuality that most forensic anthropologists paper to find are age, sex, stature and cultural background. The truth of these depend chiefly on which a peculiar elements of the organic structure are present and besides the province of saving of the remains. The truth of designation besides varies harmonizing to whether the person is an grownup or a juvenile. The appraisal of age at decease of grownup skeletal remains is one of the more hard undertakings undertaken by physical anthropologists. ( Buckberry and Chamberlain 2002 )Determining age at deceaseAge related alterations in the skeleton may reflect three different stages of the lifetime ; growing and development, stableness and aging. The first stage is represented by kids and immature grownups, who undergo alterations that proceed at a moderately predictable rate in a good documented form. Once growing has ceased at alterations in grownup forms even within a individual skeletons vary greatly and are more single and population particular. They are besides affected by factors such as wellness position business and nutrition. In add-on most of the methods used in grownup aging rely on methods developed from big archeological samples of all known sex and age. Aging in grownups can be carried out utilizing dentitions, sutura closing and the otic surface of the Ilium. Morphological alterations of the otic surfaces of the illium provide first-class age indexs for grownup remains. This surface undergoes regular progressive alterations from age 18 onwards. Using the criterion aging stage set out by Todd ( 1920 ) it is possible to determine an age scope of +- 10 old ages. Using the suturas of the skull it is besides possible to gauge age in grownups. This is done utilizing a marking system set out by Meindl and Lovejoy ( 1985 ) . These suturas fuse together at different times during life. Another method is utilizing the wear on dentitions ; chiefly it is easier to utilize the grinders. This is because one time the lasting dentitions have erupted they start to have on. These wear forms are caused when masticating and diet. Besides wear can be contributed to by crunching dentitions. These criterions are set out by Lovejoy ( 1985 ) besides give a scope of +- 10 old ages. There is besides another method for aging utilizing dentitions which is utilizing root transparence set out by Lamendin et Al ( 1992 ) . Yet once more because of the atomization of the castanetss it is non ever possible to age them. Aging juveniles is a little easier as juvenile castanetss fuse together at the epiphysis at different phases in growing and development. Besides in juveniles it is possible to age so utilizing the eruption of dentitions.The Auricular surface of the TroyBuckberry and Chamberlain ( 2002 ) based their methods of aging utilizing the Auricular surface of the Ilium on a method that was foremost set out by Lovejoy Et Al ( 1985 ) . This method was used to enter age related phases for different characteristics of the Auricular surface. Which are so combined to supply a composite mark from which an appraisal of age at decease is obtained. Lovejoy described eight modal age phases into which the Auricular surface could be placed utilizing these primary ripening characteristics. However the separate characteristics of the Auricular surface described by Lovejoy Et Al ( 1985 ) such as porousness, surface texture, and fringy alterations appear to develop independently of each other. The age of oncoming for each phase of the different characteristics of the Auricular surface appear to change, and as a effect the five twelvemonth age classs of Lovejoy Et Al ( 1985 ) tend to overlap. Early appearance characteristics still present on the Auricular surface of older persons were described by Lovejoy Et Al ( 1985 ) as â€Å" residuary † . The fact that this fluctuation that can happen within a individual regular surface indicates that this method oversimplifies the alterations seen, and that the five twelvemonth interval in assorted strategies of age appraisal may be optimistically to contract. This job and contributes to the trouble found when using this method as it leads to uncertainness and in some instances confusion in delegating single Auricular surfaces two a peculiar age phase. In position of these jobs Buckberry and Chamberlain ( 2002 ) revised the method set out by Lovejoy Et Al ( 1985 ) . Each characteristic of the Auricular surface was examined separately. This system will do it easier to use and suit the convergence are frequently seen between different phases. It utilised all the alterations seen in the Otic surface as used by Lovejoy Et Al ( 1985 ) . The method used by Buckberry and Chamberlain ( 2002 ) instead than being grouped together with all the characteristics into five twelvemonth modal age phases. The revised Auricular surface method of age appraisal allows for a more realistic reading of the alterations. Although the age estimations produced by this method are wider, this method is easier to use and may be more dependable than that of Lovejoy Et Al ( 1985 ) .The pubic symphysisThe pubic symphyses have importance in the field of forensic anthropology, as they can be used to gauge the age of grownup skeletons. Throughout life, the surfaces of the pubic symphysis are worn at a more or less predictable rate. By analyzing the wear of the pubic symphysis, it is possible to gauge the age of the individual at decease. Up to the age of 40 old ages the morphology of the ventral Demiface of the pubic symphysis undergoes a drawn-out period of age related alteration, and can hence be used in age appraisal utilizing component stage analysis ( Suchey 1979 ; Brooks and Suchey 1990 ) . The morphological characteristics on the symphyseal surface used in finding age of an person are ridges and furrows, dorsal border, ventral bevelling, lower appendage, ossific nodule, ventral bulwark, dorsal tableland and symphyseal rim ( Sinha and Gupta 1995 )JuvenilesEstimating the age in juveniles is a comparatively hard thing to make. Juvenile age is reliant on the epiphysial merger of the articulations ; the finding of the figure of erupted dentitions might lend to the appraisal of age at decease every bit good as to the designation process of unknown skeletons. During the development and growing the skeleton undergoes a sequence of alterations get downing with the formation and eruption of deciduous dentitions and their replacing with lasting teething this procedure is normally completed excepting the 3rd grinders by about the age of 12. Although the timing of this can change a small depending on sex, race, and wellness factors. Age at decease in juveniles can normally be estimated to within 1year if the appropriate criterions are used. Several methods of dental age appraisal in non-adults have been used: the Atlass method of Schour and Massler ( 1940 ) , the diagram of Gustafson and Koch ( 1974 ) . For the intent of this work the specific set by Ubelaker ( 1989 ) will be used. A new method for aging juveniles utilizing tooth eruption is a comprehensive grounds based Atlass which can be used to gauge age utilizing both tooth development and alveolar eruption for persons between 28 hebdomadsin utero up to 23 old ages ; the chief difference between this method and the method set out by Ubelaker ( 1989 ) is that it shows developmental ages without spreads or convergences AlQahtani et Al ( 2009 ) .BibliographyDemirjian A, Goldstein H. Tanner JM. ( 1973 ) A new system of dental age appraisal. Hum. Biol. 45 211-227 Lamendin H, Baccino E, Humbert JF, Tavernier JC, Nossintchouk RM, Zerilli A ( 1992 ) . A simple technique for age appraisal in grownup cadavers: The two standards dental method. Journal of forensic scientific disciplines 37:1973-1379 AlQahtani S J, H M Liversidge, M P Hector ( 2009 ) . Atlas of human toothdevelopment and eruption. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. ( In print ) . Sinha A, Gupta V. ( 1995 ) A survey on appraisal of age from pubic symphysis. Forensic Science International. 75:73-78 Buckberry J, Chamberlain A. ( 2002 ) . Age appraisal from the otic surface of the illium: A revised method. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 119:231-239 Todd TW. ( 1920 ) . Age alterations in the pubic bone I. The male white pubic bone. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 3:285-334 Lovejoy C, Meindl R, Pryzbeck T, Mensforth R. ( 1985 ) . Chronological metabolism of the otic surface of the illium: a new method for the finding of grownup skeletal age at decease. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 68:15-28 Scheuer L. ( 2002 ) . Application of Osteology to forensic medical specialty. Clinical Anatomy. 15:297-312

American Intercontinental University

Aspects of Psychology Unit 5 GP American InterContinental University March 11, 2012 Abstract This paper discusses the Erickson theory of human development. It includes a description of the different parts of the theory as well as TV characters that fit into the various life stages. There are also reviews of three different case studies done on different parts of the Erickson theory. Aspects of Psychology Unit 5 GP Erickson’s theory of life stages and development helps us understand how each of us develops throughout our lives.It explains theories starting from birth and continuing on into life. It helps us to understand why people respond the way they do when presented with certain stimuli or put in certain situations. It explains attributes and possible factors that contributed to developing those attributes in people whether they are good attributes or bad. Human development is a complex and ever changing thing and the better we can understand it the better we will be able t o respond to it and improve. Trust Vs Mistrust (birth – 2 years) starts with infancy until the age of two.If an infant grows knowing that he can trust a person because of them caring for his well being, attending to him and loving him, he will be full of happiness and very healthy. But if he doesn't gain a sense of trust because of being ignored or treated badly by his parents, he will show a lack of interest in things around him and he will also have poor health. (Erikson,E. 2010). A character that represents this stage of life is Stewie Griffin; Stewie has mistrust for his parents and everyone in general. He is always left to do whatever he wants with little input from his parents and his father is rarely home.He resolves conflict by demanding he gets what he wants and nothing less will do. Autonomy Vs Shame and Guilt (2-3 years) at this stage is when the toddlers reach toddler hood, and she will start to get into things to stimulate her mind. She will do this away from her parents. (Erikson,E. 2010). She will tend to wander off by herself more at this time in his life, but if there is shame and doubt she will do the opposite. She will feel less confident and will not go into places he doesn’t know on her own. Maggie Simpson is a character that represents this stage of life.She regularly wanders off and gets into things she is not supposed to. She also tries new things without her parents being there to supervise because she would rather do it herself. Initiate Vs Guilt (3-6 years) this is when she starts to do something and will not stop until it's done. On the other hand if there is guilt within her she will not look for challenges and will mostly likely not express who she is. (Erikson,E. 2010). A character that represents this stage of life is Lisa Simpson. Lisa is always striving to be the best; she has to get straight A’s in school or else she gets depressed and withdraws.She loves to play the saxophone despite her father being ann oyed by it and is always looking for a challenge. Industry Vs Inferiority (6-12 years) at this stage he has a sense of industry he will show much interest in his school work and the duties he has at home, and he will show a responsible attitude towards things. If he has a sense of inferiority the opposite type of behavior would be shown, because he will feel like he isn't capable of completing the given task. (Erikson,E. 2010). Bart Simpson is a character that fits this stage of life.He feels inferior and so he does things he knows are wrong on purpose because he believes if he tries to succeed in good things he will fail. When he does try he often gets discouraged before he can complete the task and reverts to destructive behavior. Identity vs Role Confusion (12-18 years) states that if he knows where he is going in life or at least he knows what he wants to be when he gets older he will tend to have a high level of self esteem. (Erikson,E. 2010). However if he has a sense of role confusion he will not have any long term goals with no sense of direction and suffer from low self esteem.Chris Griffin is in this stage of life. He suffering from role confusion and has no idea what he wants to do or even what he should do with his life. He even dressed up in women’s clothes at one point to see what it was like. He has a very low self esteem and lets himself be manipulated by others. Intimacy Vs Isolation (18 and on) at this point the stage of adulthood may be delayed until the adolescent is able to find himself. (Erikson,E. 2010). Even if the young adult is the adult age they may not reach adulthood until they are able to gather a sense of identity.If the adult has a sense of intimacy he will form close bonds with other people by making friends, and having romantic relationships with those of the opposite sex that sometimes leads into marriage. An adult with a sense of isolation will find it hard to make new friends and form relationship. (Erikson,E. 2010). They have a problem with understanding what a person may be thinking or feeling. They tend to spend most of their time alone and by themselves. Peter Griffin fits into this stage of life. Although he is grown and has a family he is still very immature and has not found himself.He has an easy time making friends and an easier time making a fool of himself. He often has to make stuff up to his wife because he has either misunderstood her or done something to embarrass her. Generativity Vs Self-Absorption (adult) is when an adult has a trait of generatively they are able to work productively which is built up over the years, and they may have a tendency of helping others. An adult with a sense of self- absorption is more self centered and care only of themselves. (Erikson,E. 2010). A character that fits into this stage is Homer Simpson.Although he sometimes does things to help others he is often very self centered and not interested in things that don’t directly benefit him. He regularly gets into trouble for doing things for his own benefit at the expense of others such as a auto dialer he set up to call everyone in town to ask them to send him a dollar. Integrity Vs Despair (old age) is when a person is content with dying, which means they can face death without being afraid and by having a peace of mind because they feel as if they have live a fulfilled life.A person with a trait of despair feels as if they wasted their life, and hasn't been able to do what all they wanted to do. (Erikson,E. 2010). Abe Simpson fits into this stage of life. He is content with what he has done throughout his life and is ready to go anytime. He often says â€Å"if God wants me God can have me. † He has served his country in war and lived a long and productive life. Erik Homburger Erikson said â€Å"It is human to have a long childhood; it is civilized to have an even longer childhood. Long childhood makes a technical and mental virtuoso out of man, but it also lea ves a life-long residue of immaturity in him†.He believed that the ego exists from birth and that behavior is not totally defensive. Erikson became aware of the massive influence of culture on behavior and placed more emphasis on the external world such as depression and wars (Intro to Psych, 2012). He organized life into eight stages from birth to death. His philosophy is based on two general themes. The world keeps getting bigger and failure is cumulative. We as humans have personality traits that have opposites. We think of ourselves as aggressive or passive, optimistic or pessimistic, a leader or a follower and independent or dependent for example.Many of these are inborn temperament traits, but other characteristics, such as feeling either inferior or competent appear to be learned, based on the experiences we have and how we are raised and the support we received growing up. A child who is not nurtured will more than likely not be a nurturing adult. A child who is shown a lot of love will probably show much love as an adult. In the study titled Reexamining Gender Issues in Erikson's Stages of Identity and Intimacy, it seems that there are biased opinions on the intimacy and identity stages of Erikson’s theory in relation to women.According to several feminist viewpoints, the developmental tasks affiliated with identity and intimacy is different in women than in men. Researchers agree that women develop these stages differently based on the importance of their relationships. Some researchers believe that Erikson’s depiction of the advancement from identity to intimacy holds a virile bias; focusing on separation from instead of connection to, others (Horst, 1995). C. Gilligan, an author from Harvard University, feels that Erikson’s theory regarding Identity and Intimacy do not correctly portray female development.She believes that those two theories are fused into one, because women develop their identity through the connections they have with others. Erikson does state that the cycle of identity and intimacy is different in women; the female identity lies dormant until she meets the man that she will marry, and whose status will define her. This theory does reflect on the fact that female development is affected by their relationships with other. Gilligan did not necessarily dispute this claim; the basis for her argument was that Erikson did not go into enough detail regarding women’s experiences in these stages of development.Several other authors and researchers agree with Gilligan’s assessment of Erikson’s theory, stating that he did not base his findings with regard to gender diversities (Horst, 1995). In this study, Elisabeth Horst evaluates these critiques, stating that they are based on a serious misinterpretation of Erikson’s Theory. I feel that Horst’s evaluation strengthens Erikson’s theory, specifically the Identity and Intimacy stages. She states that a t the time Erikson developed his theory; the life cycle theory, the epigenetic chart, and many findings on identity ere already developed and focused on masculine experience. His findings on gender differences came as an afterthought, or a modification to his original findings. Horst states that Erikson’s perception of women’s identity being found through marriage suggests that he opposes sexism, and proposes the female look at different perspectives in development. She feels that as long as people recognize sex differences, without them being overemphasized or underemphasized, development can flourish and role confusion can be eliminated.This is imperative in healthy development of identity and intimacy (Horst, 1995). I agree with Horst’s findings; Erikson does identify with sex differences to an extent, yet his theory is generalized to discuss basic theories of development. Having a sense of identity is to know where you are going in life and having goals to e nable us to have higher self esteem. Having a sense of intimacy is developing relationships and forming connections with others to allow us to fully establish our identity, and adapt to our emotions.Regardless of pointing out sex differences, these stages do address critical parts of development accurately, in both men and women. In this current on-going study of integrating Biological, Behavioral, and Social Levels of Analysis in Early Child Development they are conducting studies of child salivary cortisol in a controlled development. In doing this they are taking a biological look at the social and behavior differences and changes within the early stages of life proving the existence of chemical changes within the body according to cultural, social, or behavioral surroundings in everyday life.Within this study they are looking into the autonomy vs. shame and guilt stage or Erik Erickson's theory. Sethre-Hofstad, Stansbury, and Rice reported that in the context of a child's introd uction to a novel and / or a potentially challenging task, individual differences in maternal sensitivity predicted the degree of attunement in mother and child’s cortisol responsiveness (Granger, ; Kivlighan, 2003). These studies clearly illustrate that social forces moderate the expression of bio-behavioral relationships in children (Granger, ; Kivlighan, 2003).From a biological and chemical standpoint this strengthens Erik Erickson theory. The reason is besides being able to examine a child and study reactions and even the knowledge of the child which was passed from his mother or any other social parent there is also evidence within their cortisol showing differences in the subjects behavior or social patterns. If unsure of something or nervous of a situation he should not enter the levels are much lower than if the situation makes him relaxed which is brought on by his social life and what he has been around while with his parents.I agree with this study and am glad that it continues giving us insight to another form of tests to show differences in a child's social and even cultural background. Being able to do this test or study can tell a lot about a person individually and what habits and even surroundings they see at home. Several of Erikson's theories for human growth and development can be identified in the study that examines â€Å"Relationships Among Paternal Involvement and Young Children's Perceived Self-Competence and Behavioral Problems†.The study examines a child's behavior based on the involvement in their life from both parents which is stage 5 of Erikson's psychosocial. Identity vs. Confusion is actually a child's learning stage, which is the time that they began to develop a sense of self identity, it is also the time where they need proper encouragement and reinforcement because without it they could get confuse about the direction they would like to go (Cherry). The study concluded that the mothers who had high involvement from their children's fathers saw a more positive behavior in their children but the fathers indicated otherwise.The study also associated that the children with fathers that where highly involved showed an increase in feelings about being accepted by their parents, which plays a role in their self competence and self esteem (Rex E. Culp ; 5 Stephanie Schadle, 2000). This particular study actually strengthens Erickson's theories, because his study featured children at an early age which is considered their learning stage. This meant that they were developing self identity (Stage 5) which would cause a change in behaviors and it is also the time for proper guidance.Once the change in behavior was made they began to developed their identity which may cause them to act differently with one or both parents. That is the process that prepares them for the next stage (Cherry). I must say that I only agree with parts of the conclusion of the study itself. I agree that the feelings of being accepted are stronger with a child that is involved with both parents because they may feel that they have two sets of expectations to live up to and get confused about which direction to go in with a fear of disappointing one or both parents.This may also interfere with their ability to develop their self identity. I don't agree about the changes in behaviors being more positive with the mother than the father because even the study recorded that after spending more time with the child the father appeared frustrated. The father's behavior could've had an effect on the child's behavior or he could have stated that because of his experienced frustration.Either way I just see the father as having the more authoritative tone and demeanor so I think the child more responsive and generally better behaved than they would be with their mother, but my theory is only base on personal experience. These studies of the different life stages should help in deciding on appropriate advertizing fo r the family oriented theme park that will be affective for their target audience. It will allow them to cater to the different interests and ideas of people in the stages of life they are making the advertisements for.By knowing how people tick and what motivates them it makes the job of effective advertizing much easier. These studies help us to understand what is important to different people based largely on their stage in life. References Cherry, K. (n. d. ). About. com Psychology. Retrieved February 23, 2012, from About. com Psychology: http://psychology. about. com/od/branchesofpsycholog1/a/positive-psychology. htm Cherry, K. (2012). Psychosocial Stages-The Eight Psychosocial Stages. Retrieved from. http://psychology. about. com/od/psychosocialtheories/tp/psychosocial-stages. tm Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychological Development. (2010). Retrieved from. http://nursing-resource. com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-psychological-development/ Granger, D.. , & Kivlighan, K. (2003) . Integrating Biological, Behavioral, and Social Levels of Analysis in Early Child Development: Progress, Problems, and Prospects. Child Development, 74(4), 1058-1063. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier Horst, E. A. (1995). Reexamining Gender Issues in Erikson's Stages of Identity and Intimacy. Retrieved on March 8, 2012 from

Facebook Groups for Writersâ€The Good, The Bad, and the Ugly

Facebook Groups for Writers- The Good, The Bad, and the Ugly If you havent read the most recent Facebook statistics provided by Brandwatch, take a seat. Yes†¦thats right, take a seat. Theyre THAT staggering.With 2.375 billion monthly active users (as of Q3 2018) and 1.49 billion daily active users, 68% of U.S. adults use Facebook and 51% of them use it several times a day.In fact, out of everyone in the world who is online, 26.3% use Facebook. In the U.S. the numbers are exponentially higher.Theres little doubt that Facebook is the most popular online social media platform, with massive potential for indie authors looking to spread the word about their latest published novel. Rather than focusing on Facebook marketing, however, lets discuss an aspect of the gargantuan social media player that offers marketing, education, feedback, collaboration, and more. Yes, Im talking about Facebook groups.Facebook groups offer marketing opportunities, education, feedback, collaboration, and more. Photo by Glen Carrie on Unsplash.If youve ever been a m ember of a Facebook group, then you know that these groups can range from being full of valuable information to nothing more than a place for spammers and scammers to sell their wares or services. So, for this article, lets discuss the good, the bad, and the ugly when it comes to Facebook groups- and in doing so- sift through what is important and what isnt when marketing yourself as an indie writer on these forums.The goodThe good that you need to focus on are the ways in which you can use social media, including Facebook groups for writers, for your benefit as an author:Social media is a gold mine of unlocked potential to build a following, showcase your writing ability and gain exposure†¦ Facebook groups are yet another creative way writers can use social media to get noticed and inspired.Joining a Facebook group aimed at writers is a fantastic way to meet and collaborate with other writers. You might even find your next writing gig!Facebook writing groups range from small a nd intimate, to enormous and robust. Topics and focus vary, but the main benefit remains the same: comradery with other writers.Kelly Gurnett, The Write LifeThere are, however, important details to notice as you join and participate with these groups on Facebook. The first to highlight is that each group has its own individual rules regarding what can be posted or shared with the community at large. For example, The Write Life Facebook community is a public group, which means any writer can access it and see its posts without asking to become a member. However, this group only allows self-promotion on one day of the week (Monday, currently), and only within one thread (meaning, you cant post a separate thread to the group to advertise your latest novel thats available).Other groups, such as this closed group for Calls for Submissions (Poetry, Fiction, Art) are more targeted to a specific purpose for joining it, and might be more worth the time it requires to scroll through posts tha t are made. Currently, the group above has over 58,000 members, so obviously, its a good resource for writers looking to find publishing opportunities.Simply put, as you reach out to various Facebook groups in order to join them, choose carefully by exploring their mission statements, rules, and community standards for posting. If your primary intent in joining Facebook groups is to receive advice from other authors in the industry, your choices of potential groups is more expansive. In fact, consider looking at the groups your favorite writers have joined (you should be able to see this by joining their own individual writer page), and observe the activity those writers participate in within the community.However, if your intent is for self-promotion, there are fewer groups that allow this. Do your research. For example, this one allows self-promotion, so if self-promotion is your intent, its a good one to join (with over 15 thousand members).The badLets talk for a moment about som e of the reasons why Facebook groups can be bad for writers. As mentioned previously, without honing in on the purpose for joining a Facebook group, you might be left with posts popping up in your Facebook feed that are full of useless information that does little more than distract you from your goal, which is writing more. And lets face it- who needs more of that?Most groups are extremely upfront about their purpose, mission, and rules. In fact, you dont even have to join to read it. For example, this Indie Author Group prints the following on their group intro:MISSION STATEMENT:The Indie Author group is designed to be your trusted first stop for information about Indie writing and support.Its a place for Indie writers to interact and become better writers. By improving the overall quality we can gain the respect our hard work deserves.We welcome all writers, whether traditionally published, self-publishing or a hybrid (a blend of both). Our resources are designed around offering suggestions and tips for all aspects of the writing life.Requests for review exchanges are a form of promotion, and are not allowed.Indie Author Group, FacebookObviously, this group doesnt want self-promotion, either, and only wants to provide tips and suggestions to indie authors about the writing and publishing process. Therefore, if you join it and start trying to promote your work, youll likely be booted out- or at the very least, reminded of the rules. Groups that have efficient moderators are good at keeping unwanted material from showing up on the page and hold every right to delete a post that doesnt agree with the community standards.If you want to achieve the most good from Facebook groups, youll need to do a little research and determine a few important things:What do you want out of a Facebook group? Is it an opportunity to self-promote? Is it help from other published writers? Is it a community that will review your material before you publish it?Next, which Facebook gr oups offer what you are looking for? Narrow it down to get the most out of your group participation.The uglyAs promised in the title, there is also some sheer ugliness that comes along with joining a Facebook group for writers, and it starts with human psychology while online.Dr Ciarn Mc Mahon of the cyberpsychology research centre at the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland Institute of Leadership, explains it like this- rising right alongside of social media is narcissism in its worst form. He notes:If you put something on Twitter [or Facebook], it can be seen by upwards of 250 million people, but you probably wrote it in silence and in physical privacy. So, there is quite a gulf between instantly public global communication and these very, very private thoughts. So, a private thought- That guy is an idiot- can easily become an undeletable public announcement: You are an idiot. People have been calling each other idiots for a very long time but never before in such epic terms.Dr C iarn Mc Mahon, Irish TimesThe author of the above mentioned article, Patrick Freyne, puts it like this:People argue passionately. They argue creatively. They argue compulsively. There are misunderstandings and lapses of humour. Minor differences of opinion spiral into incivility- and, to be fair, pleasant arguments often stay pleasant. Nowadays, even the most debate-averse people find themselves engaging with online arguments vicariously, sucking up dubiously sourced opinions and counteropinions as if by osmosis.When I ask internet arguers if they argue more now than they did in the past, they dont hesitate: Definitely.So is there a point to arguing with strangers? Thats a muddier issue.Patrick Freyne, Irish TimesOnline arguments happen more often, and more easily, than face-to-face ones. Photo by Gratisography on Pexels.This leads to an important point that we should all take note of- writers and non-writers alike. What is posted online is posted for the world to see. Its also post ed in a way that is undeletable. Sure, weve all seen news stories of celebrities who posted something and then quickly deleted it, but did you catch the fact that the world still knows what was posted?The simple fact is, when you post something online, it is forever. This means that if you are in a heated argument with a fellow writer over- I dont know- something as simple as a favorite author, or a presumed intention of that favorite author, and you make a derogatory comment that could be construed wrong†¦that comment is there for everyone to see, both now and in the future. Are you that confident in your stance to engrave a comment in proverbial stone? Is the argument really worth that risk?If not, its perhaps best to leave the online arguments alone. I know very few people whose political or social stance hasnt changed in the past decade, so imagine seeing your own stance printed in a permanent form 10 years from now. What if it changes? What if that one comment isnt how you want to be remembered?These are very real considerations to keep in mind when joining an online community and participating in what is often a rude, politically-charged discourse that would rarely happen if the commentators were face to face.

Man of the Year †A Journal Theatre

Man of the Year – A Journal Theatre Free Online Research Papers Man of the Year – A Journal Theatre I can honestly say that I took this course in order to learn something about theatre. Theatre has been one area of interest that I have previously been unable to tap into on a personal level. I have seen a number of theatrical performances in the past but have never had the free time to pursue any involvement in any theatrical venue. Therefore this course has served as my introduction to the world of theatre not only in a passive way but by performing a play, also in an active way. There were some aspects of performing that I found easy, while others appeared quite hard. While I have never performed in a play or assisted in the production of a play, the idea of the group project was something completely new to me. In choosing to be an actor, I chose the role that I felt fit my qualities the best. It is hard to say why, but I found the ability to memorize my lines, while time consuming, rather easy. With very little work I was able to learn my lines and capture the ability to deliver them as needed. I also found comfort in being on the stage itself. Though I expected to be quite nervous and feel antsy while putting on the performance, to my surprise, I had no trouble delivering my lines or simply being on stage performing in front of a group of people. I felt successful in many aspects of my performance, from my body language, to my deliverance, and the clarity I believe I delivered my lines with. I felt as though I took my time, not rushing the performance and adding to the dramatic feel that was to be achieved. It was also helpful that the s cript was written using the type of spoken word that I would use in everyday conversation, making memorization easier. The production of this play however did not come without its difficulties. The group found time to rehearse outside of class at a premium, as many of our members were involved in a number of activities and had prior commitments. The production itself was shorter than most productions are, but this did not make rehearsal any easier. While it was not difficult to memorize the lines, it required something different altogether to be able to bring all of the actors’ dialogues together and also be able to create body language that is not written into the script. The play itself was of dramatic nature and had to display emotion that was completely artificial, and I felt that the two women in our production were especially strong in presenting their feeling of fear and anxiety under pressure. While we rehearsed a number of times, they displayed different emotions each time and I felt that during our final production they were at their strongest. While we cannot claim to be professionals in anything that we did, with some of our group members having acting experience and others like me having absolutely no experience, I was quite pleased with the final product. I was proud to be a part of the play â€Å"Man of the Year† and feel that on the limited time allowed that the play was well put on and pulled off. Personally I felt that I successful in learning my lines, being able to block, and achieve a sense of realism in my acting; turning a written play into a real live work of art, with action and drama all rolled into one. I can also say that I have definitely gained a newfound respect for the acting profession as a whole. Being able to really act in a serious manner on the stage I now know just what it takes to simply put on a performance, but to be good or great is something altogether. One can put in hard work to be able to act, and I feel satisfied that I did just that, but I do realize that it takes something special, maybe something that cannot be taught in order to be memorable. Research Papers on Man of the Year – A Journal TheatreRiordan Manufacturing Production PlanBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeEffects of Television Violence on Children19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraTrailblazing by Eric AndersonHonest Iagos Truth through DeceptionCapital PunishmentPersonal Experience with Teen Pregnancy

Eliminating Superfluous Phrases

Eliminating Superfluous Phrases Eliminating Superfluous Phrases Eliminating Superfluous Phrases By Catherine Osborn In classes I have taught, students lean towards using phrases that they think make them â€Å"sound smarter† but end up making their work wordy and clunky. By streamlining your sentences and cutting out a few phrases, you can communicate your point much more effectively. For example, here is a list of some that crop up frequently: â€Å"Needless to say†¦Ã¢â‚¬  If it’s so needless to say, then why are you saying it? â€Å"It goes without saying†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Same problem here; easier to get right to your point â€Å"For all intents and purposes†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Again, this could easily be cut and your sentence would begin with exactly what you intend to say. â€Å"In light of the fact that†¦Ã¢â‚¬  You could easily just say â€Å"Since†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Clear concise writing applies to all genres and helps your audience understand your point without being bogged down. Here are some quotations from newspapers that illustrate the cumbersome use of those phrases: Payne, who turns 70 in October, will be succeeded by Fred Ridley, 65, a former U.S. Amateur champion and U.S. Golf Association president who has served as chair of Augusta National’s competition committee. The change becomes effective Oct. 16, although for all intents and purposes, Ridley is now in charge, taking over a vital leadership role in golf at a time of transition and challenge for the game throughout the world. USA Today It goes without saying that Democrats would view President Trumps North Korean negotiations quite differently than Republicans, but I was honestly surprised by the strong negative reaction of Trump critics on the right. USA Today Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Writing Basics category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Dialogue Dos and Don'ts8 Proofreading Tips And Techniques150 Foreign Expressions to Inspire You

Individual Behavior and Performance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Individual Behavior and Performance - Essay Example The annual feedback on the work of each of the employees is required from the manager, for to define, whether the current position of the worker is right for him. Performance appraisal is used for to evaluate, whether the employees labor is worth of the money the company spends on him, and whether he is used rationally in the company. Performance appraisal defines whether the workers performs his tasks fully, whether he is suitable for the type of work he is doing, it evaluates the quality of his work. It is the tool that lets the administration see which of the employees deserves the promotion or/and a pay rise, and which one has to be fired because of the incompetence or the poor quality of work. The characteristic feature of aviation is that there the team work is of vital importance. For to satisfy the clients, the plane's crew has to work together, aiming the same goals. Thus, the performance appraisal of the crew is also conducted, apart from the personal performance appraisal. The task of the manager, which performs performance appraisal, is to define the list of the employees goals, and chores, and then evaluate the quality of fulfilling the chores, and to define, whether the worker reached the goal that were set before him. ... They consider the individual performance appraisal to be the most effective and significant, and make their conclusions about the best place for the person in the company guided by them, forgetting that even the best worker will lower the productivity of the group he is employed in case his team work skills are poor. Performance appraisal is quite a complicated managerial technique; it requires the deep knowledge in business, management, and some other social sciences. But interpreting the results of the appraisal, deciding what should be done for to improve them, or what is the best position for the worker, requires the background in psychology of the relationships on the workplaces, and the motivation strategies. The performance appraisal techniques foresee the existence of the form, which is the same for every worker. These forms usually don't consider the existence of the individual differences, the peculiarities of the each worker. Thus when making a conclusion considering the performance of every employee, the manager has to consider his individual features, and define, what should be done to improve his/her performance. The goal each manager follows is to increase the productivity of his employees. The authors of the book Creating Workplace Community: Motivation Solutions, Ideas and Philosophies for Motivating Ourselves and Other, note, that Performance is considered to be a function of ability and motivation. Thus it is vital to motivate the workers for to reach the maximum productivity. John Marshall Reeve offers several techniques for motivating the employees: Positive reinforcement / high expectations Effective discipline and punishment Treating

Voting Behaviour in the United Kingdom Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Voting Behaviour in the United Kingdom - Essay Example Furthermore, some of these factors play more important role than the other ones, and different voting campaigns show different tendencies. This paper will argue that such factors as age, gender, income, ethnicity and some others can influence voting behaviour in the United Kingdom, and that it is very important for sociologists, politicians and PR specialists to take into account the combination of these factors. 2. The most significant factors of voting behaviour in the United Kingdom are social class, geography, age and background, public opinion and media. Social class of voters is concerned as the most important factor: "When voting analysis began in 1945 it became clear that social class was the most important factor in the way people traditionally voted. People tended to vote according to their natural class" (Voting Behaviour). It is evident that upper and middle classes tend to vote Conservative, while upper and lower working class votes for Labour, but actually this tendency has changed - it is connected to the media activity and the politics of Conservative party which tries to attract the population of lower income, while the Labour party politics moves to the right.1 This tendency can also be explained by the changing of the population structure in the last half of the 20th century: "Since the 1970s, the number of manual workers has fallen from nearly 50% of the population to jus t 33%. This is because of the changes in employment patterns, educational opportunities and the rising standard of living" (Voting Behaviour). But in spite of that the factor of social class is still rather strong in British voting behavior. In addition to that, the household also plays very important role in voting pattern in the United Kingdom. People who live together traditionally vote for the same party, and this factor should also be taken into account: "Since we expect members of households to vote together, this means that the number of households in which all members vote for the same party should be greater than expected, whereas the number in which different members vote for different parties (or abstain) should be less than expected" (Johnston et al., 2003). Geographical location of voters also affects voting behaviour in the United Kingdom. The north of the UK, as well as Wales, tends to vote for Labour, while the southern part of the country usually votes for Conservative: "In 2001, the southern part of England voted 56.3% for the Conservative Party whilst the north of England, Scotland and Wales voted 82.4% in favour of the Labour Party" (Voting Behaviour). This tendency is connected to the historical and industrial development of different regions in Great Britain: the north and Wales are industrial regions where trade unions activity is traditionally high, and the population mostly votes for Labour. The factor of age also plays role in political preferences in Great Britain. Often people under 35 vote for Labour while older people vote for Conservative. This tendency can be explained by the Labour party politics directing younger population: "Those under 35 tend to vote Labour and the Conservative

Invasion of Privacy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Invasion of Privacy - Research Paper Example However, it is also notable that the media, being the major tool for information broadcasting, is protected through the freedom of speech, which can be used to challenge and defend its mandate to avail information to the public. On the other hand, it is possible to find that the media may not disclose information such as names of the subject of discussion if there are no hard facts to prove the statements but the reader or listener can easily tell who the person being discussed is (Cate, 2000). In such a context, it becomes difficult for a person to press charges against the media for character damaging or defamation. This paper is a critical evaluation of the right to privacy. The Right to Privacy The right to privacy is fundamental, though not absolute, as it protects human dignity. Apparently, every person has weaknesses, which, if brought out to the public, may influence negatively in shaping public opinion, which may in turn affect the success of such a person either in the soci al or political life (Alderman, 2001). For example, public offices such as the presidency, legislature, and judiciary among others require people of high integrity not withstanding that the office holders are also human beings and are prone to making errors. It therefore goes without saying that the fact that such people are public servants does not mean that the public should have unauthorized access to their private information such as family life, financial information, and medical records among other delicate issues that may relate to them. The European Convention on Human rights through article 8 protects citizens’ family and private life from intrusion by the state or other agencies (Alderman, 2001). Generally, there has not been a definite definition of privacy but it is worth noting that there are four major categories that have been acknowledged across the board. These are for example; information privacy, physical privacy, communication privacy and territorial priva cy (Alderman, 2001). With regard to information privacy, every citizen has the right to withhold any information regarding himself be it personal data, health status, among others. Personal data for example credit card information, bank details should not at any given time be accessed by a second party unless there is a court order demanding the same to be availed in circumstances such as if a person is being investigated for crimes such as corruption, money laundering among other justifying conditions. Most of the constitutions including that of the US indeed do not have specific statutes guaranteeing the right to privacy though most of the privacy issues are covered in other statutes related to human rights. However, it is observable that the US constitution, through the 9th amendment, offer a blank check to the courts enabling them protect human rights that are not included in the constitution (Kennedy, 2003). This means that the courts have the prerogative of ensuring that human dignity is respected and one way of doing so is by protecting their privacy. On the other hand, the government reserves the right to access personal information for the use by its agencies but this must be in accordance with the Privacy Act of 1974.

Managing Human Capital Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Managing Human Capital Assignment - Essay Example People are complex, and the elements that motivate the human will involve more than the material or financial. Figure 1 is an author’s conception of the gamut spanned by the human resource reward system in an organization. Rewards may be intrinsic or extrinsic; intrinsic rewards are those values that an employee perceives he attains when he performs a certain job well. The value pursued by the employee is intangible, and the flawless execution of the job is itself its own reward, from which the employee derives immeasurable personal satisfaction. Factors that may enhance intrinsic rewards to the employee include the ability to participate in decision-making, relative freedom and discretion on the job, the assignment of work the employee finds more interesting, and the opportunity for personal growth, among others. There are likewise rewards that are of an extrinsic nature, that is, the source of the personal satisfaction derived by the employee is not part and parcel of the job itself, but is a result of the workings of the company’s incentive policies and system. Extrinsic rewards may be classified as either financial or non-financial. Financial rewards may be performance based (e.g. piecework, incentive pay plans, performance bonuses and merit pay plans), implied membership based (e.g.. profit sharing, cost of living increases, time-in-rank increase), and explicit membership based (e.g. protection programs, pay for time not worked, and services and perquisites). Those non-financial rewards include preferred office furnishing, assigned parking spaces, and ability to determine one’s preferred work assignments. Reference to different types of rewards or combinations thereof shall be made in the discussion. Merit issues span a broad and differentiated set of considerations, but which principally involve the determination of those aspects of

What Is Critical Literacy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

What Is Critical Literacy - Essay Example Critical literacy is important as it moves readers beyond traditional view point about reading literature for the sake of reading the words but also to read the world. Coming up with questions about people whose voices have been represented or missing in the text, who gains or losses because of reading the text, assists the reader comprehend the text’s objectives and protect readers from being manipulated by the text itself (Joseph, 1985). Critical literacy support readers to analyze texts actively and offer strategies for uncovering underlying information. There are many different perspectives about critical literacy which have produced various pedagogical approaches about learning and teaching. All these approaches have a common basic ground that literacy needs literate users of texts to implement a critical questioning approach (Edward, 2006). Proponents of critical literacy suggest that the practice is not just a way of achieving literacy by improving one’s ability to decode texts but is the ability to have a dialogue with others about the various meanings information might have and taking through a potentially critical learner how to think flexibly. Literacy development has encouraged students to interrogate issues of power, for example the disparities in a social context for instance socio-economic status, gender, sexual orientation, class, race etc. Students have become critically literate because they have the ability to critique messages that are in the texts that they read. Fundamentally, instructors who use critical pedagogy show how to examine the language and how it plays a role in the social construction. This therefore implies that critically literate students evaluate ongoing development, the role they play on the earth and how experiences make sense to them. There are many ways of involving students t o become critical members

Prevalence of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in Post-Acute Assignment

Prevalence of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in Post-Acute Myocardial Infraction - Assignment Example PTSD affects the quality of life that such patient population lead often making them susceptible to other lifestyle diseases (Goldberg & Williams, 1998). In a quantitative research, I seek to determine the suitability of a psychological discharge questionnaire in serving as a diagnostic tool to guide nursing practice and the handling of post-acute myocardial infraction patients. Key among the factors that make quantitative the most appropriate mode of research in this context is the fact that it provides observable evidence that helps formulate a hypothesis (Bamberger, 2000). The variables in a quantitative study are computed without coding them. As such, they provide practical evidence that makes it easy to observe thereby formulate functional hypothesis such as the suitability of the psychological discharge questionnaire. Another equally important factor is that quantitative research does not require a restrictive design plan a feature that allows the researcher to study the variables in their natural setup (Creswell, 2014). As state earlier, the lack of adequate studies in the topical issue makes it difficult to carry out the rese arch. As such, the researcher must let the research flow naturally a possibility that a quantitative design guarantees. The independent variable in the study is the psychological discharge questionnaire while dependent variable is the detection of PTSD. The dependent variable in the research will include the various types of PSTD such as depression and anxiety among others. With a research sample of ninety patients selected randomly, the researcher will issue the psychological discharge questionnaires to forty-five and fail to give out the questionnaire to the remaining forty-five. The study then begins as the nurses use the information provided in the questionnaire to carry out follow up treatment of the patients. Additionally, the researcher observes the behavioral changes of all the samples used in the research thus making appropriate conclusions on the suitability and functionality of using questionnaires as a diagnostic tool.

What Is Critical Literacy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

What Is Critical Literacy - Essay Example Critical literacy is important as it moves readers beyond traditional view point about reading literature for the sake of reading the words but also to read the world. Coming up with questions about people whose voices have been represented or missing in the text, who gains or losses because of reading the text, assists the reader comprehend the text’s objectives and protect readers from being manipulated by the text itself (Joseph, 1985). Critical literacy support readers to analyze texts actively and offer strategies for uncovering underlying information. There are many different perspectives about critical literacy which have produced various pedagogical approaches about learning and teaching. All these approaches have a common basic ground that literacy needs literate users of texts to implement a critical questioning approach (Edward, 2006). Proponents of critical literacy suggest that the practice is not just a way of achieving literacy by improving one’s ability to decode texts but is the ability to have a dialogue with others about the various meanings information might have and taking through a potentially critical learner how to think flexibly. Literacy development has encouraged students to interrogate issues of power, for example the disparities in a social context for instance socio-economic status, gender, sexual orientation, class, race etc. Students have become critically literate because they have the ability to critique messages that are in the texts that they read. Fundamentally, instructors who use critical pedagogy show how to examine the language and how it plays a role in the social construction. This therefore implies that critically literate students evaluate ongoing development, the role they play on the earth and how experiences make sense to them. There are many ways of involving students t o become critical members

Oral Reading Essay Example for Free

Oral Reading Essay Reading is a complex activity. It sends our brains into a frenzy of electrical impulses that zig and zag through matter in ways we still do not totally understand. It organizes sights and sounds in designs that ultimately connect us to the broad vistas of lifes many landscapes. Reading gives us the opportunity to appreciate those landscapes in all their variety. It is remarkable that, whatever approach, method, or ideology is used to teach reading, most students become proficient at it. For many students, successful reading is assimilated into their experience quickly and with seeming smoothness. For perhaps as many as 20% of students however, reading is not an automatic skill. Patterns of understanding have to be systematically instilled so that the reading has the opportunity to crack the alphabetic code. More and more, what we have learned is that connecting these alphabetic symbols to specific sounds in order to create meaningful words. There is considerable longitudinal research to support that we should employ literacy skills every time we read. Without this connection between the basic unit of sound and the alphabetic symbol, reading does not occur for any of us. Accurate identification of children who experience delays in attaining critical early literacy skills is needed to prevent reading problems. Studies have demonstrated that reading problems become increasingly more resistant to intervention and treatment after the 3rd grade. This study will focus on early core literacy skills. These needed core skills for young children are phonological awareness (ability to identify and manipulate sounds), alphabet knowledge (awareness of individual letters and letter names), and grapheme–phoneme correspondence (ability to identify correspondence between letters and sounds). Children’s abilities across these four core skills serve as important predictors of subsequent reading achievement. A screening instrument that does not comprehensively examine all core skills may be ineffective for identifying children who display limitations in a particular area of early literacy. However, failing to identify young children exhibiting delays in early literacy acquisition or lacking core literacy skills is a risky venture and this is a challenge that we will face in this study. Historical Background Name: Alyza Zofia Z. RenonAge: 5 Sex: FemaleDate of birth: March 10, 2006 Identification: Alyza is a normal, outgoing 5 year-old kindergarten girl. Since her mother is a pre-elementary teacher, she teaches her everything when they are at home. She enjoys dancing and playing games. She loves to listen about science-related topics whenever possible. She is talkative and loves to answer questions. She can only read alphabet and one or two syllable words with pictures. Affective Factors Alyzass motivational level apparently varies with the topic. According to her mother, if the topic is interesting to her like books with colorful pictures, she is highly motivated. However, if the topic does not appeal to her, she keeps silent or finds something to play with. Physical Factors Alyza has a very good eyesight, in terms of auditory acuity, Alyza showed no indications of difficulties. Alyza didnt show any other physical limitation; she appears to be physically healthy. This means, there are no obvious health-related reasons for her reading difficulties. Objectives: This research will aim to determine or identify student who is at risk or not at risk for reading problems. This study will also seek to answer the following questions: 1. How do the 3 literacy skills affect the reading of the child? 2. How does the students background affect her reading ability? 3. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the child in reading? Significance of the study The researchers hope that the study will be beneficial to the following: To the student, who will learn and improve her reading skills. Likewise, to the teachers of kindergarten, for they will focus more on the three literacy skills. Furthermore, to the researchers, to understand the factors that affect the poor reading ability of the child. Lastly, to the school administration, this study will provide basis to improve their curriculum and to focus more on literacy skills in pre-elementary department. Scope and Delimitation of the study This study will be conducted to determine the literacy skills of a kindergarten child. It will deal on how the child identify and manipulate sounds, her awareness of letter names and ability to identify correspondence between letters and sounds. It will discuss the certain measures, steps and ways on how to develop the literacy skills of the child in reading but it does not deal on the ways on how to pronounce the words correctly nor steps on how to syllabicate the words properly. The respondent of the study will be limited to kindergarten student only. Research Paradigm Chapter 2 Review of related literature Local According to Unicef Philippines, there are only 63% of the children who enroll in school complete primary school, this means that the quality of education remains poor in many areas of the country. A childs literacy skills are important to their success in school and work. Children who learn to read from an early age are generally more successful in academic areas. (Unicef Philippines) There were a research in 2008 conducted by by Bananal, a faculty member of arts and letters in U. S. T on how to measure the reading ability of grades 1 and 2 students. She stated that there were 3 levels in reading: Independent reading level pupil can read with ease without the help or guidance of a teacher. The student can also read with rhythm, with a conversational tone and can interpret punctuation correctly. Instructional reading level pupil can profit from instruction. Frustrated reading level pupils show symptoms or behavior of withdrawing from reading situation and commit multiple type of error in informal reading. Reading levels of children Grade 1 Frustrated reader 64. 41% Instructional reader 20. 17% Independent reader 15. 42% Grade 2 Frustrated reader 49. 98% Instructional reader 31. 40% Independent reader 19. 07% The result showed that there many students who encountered difficulties in oral reading. This means that children did not master the three literacy skills when they were in the primary level. The use of accurate, valid, reliable screening tools several times throughout the early years can help in the identification of those in need of monitoring further intervention or remediation. Information obtained from early reading screenings is likely to lead to positive changes in childrens reading trajectories because prevention strategies and interventions provided have a better chances of success when started sooner rather than later (Bananal, 2008). Foreign The negative effects of reading problems are well documented (Harris Sipay, 1990). There is evidence that reading disability is associated with social, economic, and psychological problems. There is little evidence, however, that efforts to correct reading problems through remedial reading programs or through special education placement have been very successful (Allington McGill-Franzen, 1989; Hiebert Taylor, 1994; Johnston Allington, 1991; Karweit, Slavain, Wasik, 1992-93; Kennedy, Birman, Demaline, 1986; Rowan Guthrie, 1989). Instead, there is evidence to suggest that children who encounter difficulty in learning to read fall further and further behind their achieving peers (Stanovich, 1986). Traditional approaches to dealing with reading problems, such as tracking and grade retention, do not help; indeed, they often appear to be detrimental to eventual student achievement (Shepard Smith, 1989; McGill-Franzen Allington, 1993). In contrast, a growing body of evidence suggests that reading problems are preventable for the vast majority of students who encounter difficulty in learning to read, if these students receive extra support in the form of an early intervention program (Goldenberg, 1994; Hiebert Taylor, 1994; Reynolds, 1991). In this paper, the term early intervention refers to early school intervention programs that are designed to prevent problems in literacy from developing rather than trying to correct a problem after it is established. For the most part, such programs have been used in first and second grades. Several of these programs have proven very effective when compared to conventional compensatory reading programs. For example, Hiebert, Colt, Catto, and Gury (1992) report that while 77 percent of the students in their early intervention project were reading at a primer level at the end of first grade, only 18 percent of a comparison group who participated in a traditional Title I program achieved that level of reading proficiency. While almost half (47 percent) of the students in the conventional Title I program remained nonreaders at the end of first grade, only 7 percent of the early intervention students were nonreaders. Thus, a growing body of evidence suggests that almost all reading problems are preventable. A review of the research literature indicates that there are at least five early reading intervention programs that have documented effectiveness. This paper will only very briefly describe the individual programs and then will concentrate on the factors that seem characteristic of all or at least most of these successful intervention programs. Two of the five programs, Success for All (Madden, Slavin, Karweit, Dolan, Wasik, 1991; Slavin, Madden, Karweit, Livermon, Dolan, 1990; Slavin, Madden, Karweit, Dolan, Wasik, 1992), and the Winston-Salem Project (Cunningham, Hall, Defee, 1991; Hall, Prevatte, Cunningham, 1993), involve comprehensive reorganization of the entire classroom routine; all students in the grades in which the program is implemented are affected. In the Winston-Salem Project all first and second grade reading/language arts instruction was reorganized around four major, thirty-minute blocks of activities: teacher-directed group reading activities, word learning activities, writing, and self-selected reading. In addition, in the school that served a very high proportion of at-risk students, an additional 45-minute block of time for very small-group instruction was included. During this small-group instruction time, students had additional opportunities to practice reading, writing, and word learning activities. Though it has now been implemented in more than 85 schools, Success for All was first implemented in schools in major metropolitan areas that served, almost exclusively, children from low socioeconomic backgrounds who had few experiences with literacy. Major features of this schoolwide program included heterogeneous grouping for most of the day, cross-grade grouping according to reading level for 90 minutes of smaller group (15 to 20 students) reading instruction, and one-to-one tutoring for those students  who needed extra support. The Boulder Program (Hiebert, Colt, Catto, Gury, 1992) and Reading Recovery (Clay, 1985; Clay, 1993; Clay, 1993a; Pinnell, 1989; Pinnell, Fried, Eustice, 1990) are add-on, pull-out programs; they are added to whatever approach to language arts instruction is being used in a school. The Reading Recovery Program, which originated in New Zealand, has been widely implemented in the United States and in several other countries as well. It is exclusively a first grade, one-to-one tutoring program. Reading Recovery is also recognized for the extensiveness of its teacher training program, which is conducted over the course of a year with fully certified teachers. The Boulder Program operated exclusively with the resources of a Title I program. The program worked originally with a pupil-teacher ratio of six students for each teacher. Through the use of carefully trained, supervised paraprofessionals who worked closely with certified, trained teachers, the ratio was reduced to three students for each teacher. Instruction was daily for twenty minutes. The Early Intervention in Reading Program (EIR) (Taylor, Frye, Short, Shearer, 1992; Taylor, Strait, Medo, 1994) takes yet another approach. Regular first and second grade classroom teachers work for an extra twenty minutes with the five or six students who are encountering the greatest amount of difficulty in learning to read. Provision is also made for these students to practice their reading for an additional five or ten minutes each day by reading individually or in pairs to the teacher, a teachers aide, a volunteer, etc. All five programs clearly acknowledge that the small-group or individual early intervention instruction that students receive is an addition to, not a substitute for, the instruction they receive as part of the regular classroom program. In the case of two of the programs (Success for All and the Winston-Salem Project), regular classroom reading instruction has been redesigned to ensure that appropriate instructional routines and materials are used. However, even when early intervention instruction is added to an effective existing reading program, there is also the anticipation that the sound practices that are part of the early intervention program will become infused into regular classroom instruction if they are not already part of it. For example, Reading Recovery teachers almost always spend part of their day as regular classroom teachers, reading consultants, language arts coordinators, etc. ; through these roles they attempt to introduce  instructional principles and practices that are part of Reading Recovery into the ongoing regular classroom. All of the programs reflect a model of reading as an active, meaningful, constructive process. Before-reading activities are used to build or activate relevant background knowledge, concepts, and vocabulary. Students are taught to monitor their reading to ensure that what they are reading makes sense. They are taught strategies for correcting word recognition errors that detract from meaning, and they are given opportunities for reacting and responding to selections they have read. The texts they are asked to read are read for enjoyment and for information. Other activities are developed within a framework of reading for meaning. Because reading for meaning is the constant point of reference and because students in these programs need substantial help in building word identification skills, the amount of time spent in discussing selections and in teacher questioning about the selection is kept to a minimum.